Hope and career regret: Mediator role of career adaptability and career construction.
<OR>orcid.org/0000-0002-6506-7236</OR> <OR>orcid.org/0000-0002-2225-1789</OR>Abstract
An individual's career path choice is a unique decision that can be relatively difficult to change and lead to significant consequences. A well-planned career decision-making process helps individuals to be successful in an occupation. However, an undesirable decision-making process may hinder career development. This type of undesirable decision-making possibly leads to regrets in a career; if not addressed, these regrets may be highly destructive. To deepen the understanding of the reasons leading to it, this study focuses on the mediator role of career adaptability and career construction regarding the relationship between hope and regret. We collected the data through convenience sampling, and the participants comprised 550 Turkish university students. Each participant completed Dispositional Hope Scale, Student Career Construction Inventory, Career Adapt-Abilities Scale--Short Form, and Career Decision Regret Scale. The results revealed that career adaptability and career construction had significant mediator effects regarding the relationship between hope and career regret.
KEYWORDS
career adaptability, career construction, career regret, dispositional hope
INTRODUCTION
One of the most basic developmental stages of individuals in late adolescence and early adulthood is the choice of occupation. This developmental stage is partially completed during the university period; however, the career path, which has a dynamic structure, is considered as a process that continues its development for a long period of time (Erdurcan & Kirdok, 2017; Savickas, 1990). University students, who have largely made their occupational decisions, are likely to experience various emotional and cognitive reactions to the consequences of these decisions. The increase in the levels of satisfaction and well-being is one of the most common feelings of students who think that their choices are positive. On the other hand, thinking that the outcome of the choices is worse than initially expected or that choosing another option will lead to a better outcome is likely to lead an individual to have regret (Budjanovcanin et al., 2019; Gilovich & Medvec, 1995; Zeelenberg et al., 1998).
Career regret occurs when individuals compare their current career choices with the probable previous ones (Brehaut et al., 2003; Galinsky et al., 2005; Zeelenberg & Pieters, 2007). It is a negative emotional state that individuals experience as a result of being unsatisfied with the profession they have chosen and thinking that the chosen profession is not suitable for them (Brehaut et al., 2003; Erducan & Kirdok, 2017). The feeling of regret resulting from wrong decision leads the individual to think that they have missed opportunities and deeply feel sorry (Brehaut et al., 2003).
Career regret is one of the areas that an individual regret most in their lives, which comes after their choices in the field of education (Roese & Summerville, 2005). Among the reasons why individuals regret the decisions they made as a result of their choice of profession, it can be considered that they do not have enough information about themselves and the profession, that they do not receive enough education, and that they have uncertainties or dysfunctional thoughts (Qakir, 2004; Lee & Sturm, 2017; Ozaltin, 2020). Overcoming regrets and reconciling the consequences can be a life-long tiring process by increasing the occupational burnout of individuals, unless the factors that cause such regrets regarding the choice of profession, which is at the origin of the career path, are taken into account (Dyrbye et al., 2020; Hennessey, 2011; Tian et al., 2019). The study results demonstrated that career regret leads to job dissatisfaction (Kose, 2019), burnout (Doganiilkii & Kirdok, 2021), a tendency to leave work (Santra & Giri, 2017), and an increase in turnover intention (Avsar-Dogrusoz et al., 2022). As it results in numerous adverse outcomes, it is crucial to understand the complex structure of the career path that may cause regret in order to make healthier decisions and reduce career regret.
Research on Turkish university students also explains the adverse effects of career regret (Avsar-Dogrusoz et al., 2022; Biricik, 2019; Erdurcan & Kirdok, 2017). Furthermore, the Turkish education system does not provide enough support to reduce regrets and change their preferred departments for students who have not made clear decisions. In the current system in Turkey, students who graduate from high school pass a two-stage examination system in order to be admitted to university. The scores obtained from these exams are added to the score obtained by multiplying each student's high school grade point average by the coefficient score of 0.12 (Measuring, Selection, and Placement Center [MSPC], 2021). Considering their interests and abilities, students choose a university and a major that is suitable for the scores they have obtained as a result of the sum of these two points. However, sometimes students realize that they are not happy in the department or university they have chosen, and they feel a sense of regret. For such cases, students have the right to transfer to another university or to another department in the same university according to their previous admission scores or the scores of the current grade point average. The number of students who can benefit from this right, which is defined with a very limited quota, is at a low level. Students who cannot benefit from this right can re-prepare for the university exam and make a choice in the following year. However, this situation causes the coefficient scores related to high school success scores added to the exam scores to decrease by half. Encountering these situations may prevent students from preparing for the exams again and making the choice they want, and as a result, the feeling of regret may increase in the following years.
This may cause many students who are dissatisfied and regretful with their chosen department to re-enter the university entrance exam. In other words, the success of the students who have made their choice is not sufficient to bring them satisfaction related to their career decision (Buyiikgoze-Kavas, 2011). Therefore, the wrong decisions to be taken regarding career choice, which have lasting effects on the personality, behaviors, feelings, and thoughts of the individuals, can directly affect the lives of the individual. This individual action is so important that it can manifest itself in the economic well-being of countries (Kazi & Akhlaq, 2017). Considering all these effects, determining the factors that may affect career regret is a highly important step in reducing the experience of career regret or preventing this situation (Biricik, 2019).
Hope and career regret
Career construction theory suggests that adaptive readiness is the first step of these dimensions. It includes personality traits that require preparation for the process and willingness to change. In this regard, it is possible to regard hope as one of the readiness elements regarding the process as it is difficult for individuals without hope to take positive actions (Niles et al., 2010). Hope is defined as the potential of individuals to reach goals, perceive the ways to goals, and motivate their mental energy to achieve these goals (Snyder, 2002). People with high levels of hope who encounter obstacles on the way to their goals can create more alternative paths by activating the belief that they can create other ways (Snyder et al., 2000). In other words, people with high levels of hope have more positive emotions to pursue their goals, while individuals with low levels of hope may have a feeling of emotional lethargy and negative feelings about pursuing their goals (Snyder et al., 1999). Therefore, hope is also a fundamental factor with regard to career self-management. The action-oriented hope-centered approach explains the relationship of this management based on seven competencies. These are as follows: action-oriented hope, self-reflection, self-clarity, visioning, and goal setting/planning, implementing, and adapting (Niles, et al., 2011). This approach suggests that hope is a main element that will activate the person in the career process. In addition, in the event of any setback in this process, people with high levels of hope have the ability to create alternative options and foster expectations that the process will result in a positive outcome (Niles, 2011; Snyder et al., 1998).
Therefore, people are supposed to have a source of readiness, namely, hope, in order to take action in the career process and overcome difficulties. However, there are different perspectives regarding the role of hope in the literature that deals with the concepts of career construction theory. A number of these studies highlight that hope has a mediating role. It is also emphasized that hope plays a mediating role in career adaptability and life satisfaction (Di Maggio et al., 2022; Santilli et al., 2014, 2017) and resilience (Rivera et al., 2021). In addition, hope is considered to play a mediating role related to career goals and career adjustment (Korkmaz & Cenkseven Ozder, 2019). Ginevra et al. (2016) evaluated hope within the framework of a positive belief for the future and regarded it as a mediator between career adaptability and career determination.
The role of hope is also considered as an independent variable from a different point of view. The correlations among such concepts as career adaptability and career goal feedback (Korkmaz, 2023); career adaptability, life satisfaction, and academic self-efficacy (Zeng et al., 2022); and career adaptability and satisfaction (Wilkins et al., 2014) were analyzed in the light of the concept "hope" presented in these studies. It was stated that the paths regarding career planning, career self-efficacy, and career decisions (Hirschi, 2013) are significant. The present study is based on career construction theory and hope-centered model, consistent with other studies in which hope is considered independent because being hopeful is one of the most basic concepts for individuals to continue their career development and to overcome problems (Diemer & Blustein, 2007; Niles, 2011).
Research on the effect of hope on the career path also supports this information. According to Kucuk et al. (2019), the students who state that the department they prefer is the one they aim for have significantly higher hope scores than those who state that they do not prefer the ideal educational department. Moreover, this situation has the importance to the extent that it may negatively affect not only the students who have made their vocational education decisions, but also the decision-making status of students who are still at the stage of career decision-making (Saka et al., 2008). The related literature also regards dispositional hope and career regret as two opposite poles on which an individual makes a proper career decision. The study results suggested that hope, pessimism, and optimism are factors closely related to individuals' careers (Ginevra et al., 2017; Niles et al., 2011; Savickas, 2013). Hirschi (2014) also concluded that hope is a positive predictor of proactive career behaviors that may imply less career regret. Doganulku and Guneslice (2022) found a significant negative correlation between visions regarding the future and career decision regret.
In line with these studies, we hypothesized that hope may affect career regret. In the context of career construction theory, it is possible to say that regret is a result of adaptation and hope is a readiness for adaptation.
The mediator role of career adaptability
Individuals with adequate levels of readiness need self-regulation resources to make convenient choices (Savickas et al., 2018). It is possible to associate these resources with the second dimension of career construction theory called "adaptability resources." As adaptability resources include career adaptability, career adaptability resources were identified as the first mediator variable that is influenced by hope in the present study
Career adaptability is defined as the resources of coping with various career-related traumas or unpredictable situations in the face of these developmental tasks and occupational transitions that individuals need to successfully perform (Savickas, 1997; Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). In other words, adaptability explains the processes of actively building career lives by influencing people's determination to initiate and maintain behaviors that will help them achieve their goals (Santilli et al., 2014). Individuals benefit from four general aspects of adaptation in the career decision-making process (Savickas, 2013). The first of these is career concern, which increases the awareness of the future and encourages the individual to prepare for a career. Another aspect requires the person to be involved in their decision-making process in a planned and self-disciplined way, along with maintaining career control. The third aspect of harmony, career curiosity, explains the individual's curiosity about the harmony between self and career options. The last aspect of career adjustment, career confidence, is related to the sense of self-efficacy about overcoming the tasks in the process.
This adaptability is the self-regulation capacity that increases the coping resources that individuals can use to solve their complex and misidentified problems (Greenhaus & Callanan, 2006; Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). It has been stated that individuals with high career adaptability are able to explore possible options, anticipate, and cope with occupational difficulties and obstacles (Zhu et al., 2019), by predicting future goals (Guan et al., 2017). A study on a difficult and exhausting process like the COVID-19 pandemic revealed that a number of healthcare professionals had an increased level of regret, because of their occupational decisions during this period (Gaffney, 2021). On the other hand, some of the healthcare professionals stated that this experience increased their commitment to work and stated that the pandemic helped them be stronger (Liu et al., 2020). While many individual factors may have an impact on these two points of view, people who have higher career adaptability are also more likely to respond to the change easily, which can allow individuals to recognize more possibilities in this complex situation (Lee et al., 2021).
Other studies on career adaptability reveal that career adaptability is related to career satisfaction (Guan et al., 2015; Zacher, 2015), career uncertainty (Yigit, 2018), hope and optimism (BuyiikgozeKavas, 2014; Santilli et al., 2017), job satisfaction (Zacher & Griffin, 2015), personality traits (ispir et al., 2019), professional self-concept (Scholl & Cascone, 2010), career success (Haenggli & Hirschi, 2020), and career construction skills (Babarovic & Sverko, 2016). It is also stated that there is a negative relationship between career adaptability and individuals' turnover intention, and positive relationships in terms of career satisfaction (Haibo et al., 2018). Kazi and Akhlaq (2017) stated that individuals who are unable to adapt in work life sufficiently tend to be less productive and less efficient. As a result of all these studies, high career adaptability helps individuals to complete their career path successfully and to increase their positive emotions.
The mediator role of career construction skills
Individuals need to be active in career construction processes to prevent the occurrence of unhappiness and inadequate job satisfaction that results from career regret (Chen et al., 2004; Hennessey, 2011). Thus, as stated in the career construction theory, students are first expected to be aware of their interests and abilities regarding their occupational selves and to have sufficient knowledge regarding occupations through detailed research. Then, it is very important for them to prepare and receive training for the profession they want to do (Savickas et al., 2018). We assumed that adaptive resources may be conceptualized with career construction since it includes vocational thoughts and behaviors, involved in constructing a career choice.
Savickas et al. (2018) indicated that adaptive responses include career construction. This process includes actual behavioral performances in terms of changing career conditions and career choices (Savickas, 2013; Savickas et al., 2018). These behavioral performances include four stages--Crystallizing, Exploring, Deciding, and Preparing. Savickas et al. (2018) explained that the crystallization stage, which is the first step of the process defined for university students, allows the attitudes, beliefs, and competencies to be taken into account during career development years to become a priority. Then, it is emphasized that the contextual demands are significant regarding the exploration process and the creation of life goals and education plans (Marko & Savickas, 1998). In the decision stage, the individual is expected to decide which profession to choose. Lastly, in the Preparing stage, individuals receive an education related to the decision. These stages were verified in three dimensions by analyzing Deciding and Preparing as one dimension for the Turkish sample group. This is explained by the fact that Turkish university students make career choices and get an education simultaneously (Sevinc & Siyez, 2018).
Current study
The present study is expected to contribute to the literature in two ways: First, in the previous studies, adaptive result was linked with positive emotions and outcomes such as job satisfaction, career decision self-efficacy, and career choice satisfaction. However, the present study focuses on the negative outcome, which is career regret. Second, we used career construction theory to determine the factors that have possible effects on career regret. Career construction theory analyzes the process and results of professional behavior with the aim of providing answers to such questions as how, why, and what (Savickas, 2005). Career construction theory also draws a road map extending from adaptive readiness, adaptability resources, and adaptation responses to adaptation results (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). Following this framework, it was hypothesized that dispositional hope is an adaptive readiness, career adaptability is an adaptive resource, career construction is an adaptive response, and career regret is a career result.
It points out that the career journey includes knowledge and skills about the past, present, and future of the individual and that hope can play an important role in the effect of hope on the individual's journey in this whole process. According to Tarhan and Bacanh (2015), hope has an inclusive content in terms of past, present, and future hope levels of individuals. It is thought that students who successfully pass career stages and are hopeful to overcome the difficulties in this process are more likely to be satisfied with their career decisions and their regrets regarding their career choice are likely to decrease. Career adaptability, which is effective in coping with difficult situations in the career development process, is an important factor for positive career outcomes (Tokar et al., 2020; Zhu et al., 2019). Thanks to their career adaptability, individuals can cope with changing situations in their social lives. This helps them become more determined to reach their goals and to initiate as well as maintain behaviors that will help them. The whole process, which includes the stages of crystallizing, exploring, preparing, and deciding, allows individuals to actively construct their career lives (Santilli et al., 2014). Individuals who actively use their adaptabilities may be more successful in crystallization, exploration, preparing, and deciding while constructing their careers (Savickas et al., 2018). Furthermore, the dissatisfaction of Turkish university students with their career choices and the resulting inability of the higher education system to adequately allow for change could lead to irreversible problems in the future. For all these reasons, career regret and related factors are considered to be important in the Turkish higher education system.
In the light of career construction theory and related research, the hypotheses of the study are as follows:
H1: The career adaptability mediates the relationship between dispositional hope and career regret.
H2: The career construction mediates the relationship between dispositional hope and career regret.
H3: The career adaptability and career construction are serial mediators in the relationship between dispositional hope and career regret.
METHOD
This study was designed within the scope of relational research since it examines the relationships between career construction, career adaptability, dispositional hope, and career regret among university students through serial mediation. In relational research, the direction of the relations between the variables and the level of the relation are discussed (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010; Mertens, 2015).
Participants
The study was conducted with undergraduate students studying at the faculties of Literacy, Education, Law, Economics and Administrative Sciences, Architecture, Engineering, Health Sciences, and Medicine. The study employed convenience sampling method in order to form the sample group in the study. In the convenient sampling method, the researcher includes individuals in the research based on their convenience or availability (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010). A total of 550 students participated in the research. Of the students forming the study group, 372 (67.6%) were female and 178 (32.4%) were male. A total of 14.4% of the students attended the freshman, 28.4% attended the sophomore, 24.9% attended the junior, 29.3% attended the senior, and 3% attended the others. The mean age of the study group was 21.57, and the standard deviation was 2.08.
Measurements
Student career construction inventory
The scale, which was developed by Savickas et al. (2018) and adapted into Turkish by Seving and Siyez (2018), aims to measure the career choice attitudes, beliefs, and competencies of university students. The scale, which consists of 18 items, is scored on a 5-point Likert scale, with the lowest score being 18 and the highest reaching 90 points. The scale was four-dimensional in its original form, and it was stated that the three-dimensional structure had better-fit values in the Turkish version (Seving & Siyez, 2018). These dimensions are crystallization (e.g., "Identifying my talents and skills"), exploration (e.g., "Searching for the occupations that might be suitable for me"), and readiness and decision-making (e.g., "Finding opportunities that will enable me to get the education and experience that I need'). High scores obtained from the scale indicate that the individual is capable of performing the occupational behaviors that he/she has to do during career construction stage. As a result of the confirmatory factor analysis to determine the construct validity of the scale, it was determined that the model fit indices were in the acceptable range ([chi square] = 256.39, df= 130, [chi square]/df= 1.97, root mean square error of approximation [RMSEA] = 0.056, standardized root mean square residual [SRMR] = 0.051, root mean square residual [RMR] = 0.069, goodness of fit index [GFI] = 0.092, adjusted goodness of fit index [AGFI] = 0.89). When the findings related to the reliability of the scale were evaluated, it was determined that the reliability of the whole scale was 0.87, while the internal consistency reliability coefficients of the subdimensions were 0.65 for Crystallizing, 0.72 for Exploring, and 0.87 for Preparing and Deciding. Within the scope of this study, the internal consistency coefficient for the whole scale was found to be 0.86.
Career adapt-abilities scale--short form
The scale, which was developed by Savickas and Porfeli (2012) and adapted into Turkish by Erdogmus-Zorver and Yesilyaprak (2021), aims to measure career adaptability. The scale, which consists of 12 items, is scored on a 5-point Likert-type scale, with the lowest score being 12 and the highest score reaching 60 points. The scale consists of four subdimensions. These dimensions are as follows: "Concern," which examines focusing on the future (e.g., "I prepare for my future"), "Control," which examines controlling about career future (e.g., "I make my own decisions"), "Curiosity," which examines exploring self and work environment (e.g., "I examine options before making a choice"), and "Confidence" (e.g., "I learn new skills"), which examines the belief in being able to overcome career challenges (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012).
High scores obtained from the scale indicate that the individual's career adaptability is high. As a result of the confirmatory factor analysis to determine the construct validity of the scale, it was determined that the model fit indices were in the acceptable range ([chi square] = 269.19, [chi square]/df = 5.38, RMSEA = 0.08, SRMR = 0.06, comparative fit index [CFI] = 0.93, Tucker-Lewis index [TLI] = 0.91). When the findings regarding the reliability of the scale were evaluated, it was determined that the reliability of the whole scale was 0.88, while the internal consistency reliability coefficients of the subdimensions were 0.77 for Concern, 0.67 for Control, 0.76 for Curiosity, and 0.79 for Confidence. Within the scope of this research, the internal consistency coefficient for the whole scale was found to be 0.87.
Career decision regret scale
The scale, developed by Brehaut et al. (2003) and adapted into Turkish by Erdurcan and Kirdok (2017), aims to measure the level of regret experienced by an individual in case of an occupational decision. The 5-item scale consists of one dimension (e.g., "I regret the choice I made"). High scores obtained from the scale indicate the high level of career decision regret of the individual. As a result of the confirmatory factor analysis to determine the construct validity of the scale, it was determined that the model fit indices were in the acceptable range ([chi square]/df = 2.545, RMSEA = 0.06, SRMR = 0.013, GFI = 0.99, incremental fit index [IFI] = 0.99, AGFI = 0.96, CFI = 0.99). When the findings regarding the reliability of the scale were evaluated, it was determined that the reliability of the whole scale was 0.91. Within the scope of this study, the internal consistency coefficient for the whole scale was found to be 0.87.
Dispositional hope scale
The scale, which was developed by Snyder et al. (1991) and adapted into Turkish by Tarhan and Bacanli (2015), aims to measure the level of continuous hope in individuals aged 15 and over. The 12-item scale consists of two subdimensions, and the lowest score is 8 and the highest score is 64 in the scale. These dimensions have been defined as "Alternative Ways Thinking Dimension" (e.g., "There are lots of ways around any problem") and "Actuating Thinking Dimension" (e.g., "My past experiences have prepared me well for my future").
High scores obtained from the scale indicate a high level of hope of the individual. As a result of the confirmatory factor analysis to determine the construct validity of the scale, it was determined that the model fit indices were in the acceptable range (RMSEA = 0.077, RMR = 0.08, GFI = 0.96, CFI = 0.96 AGFI = 0.92, relative fit index [RFI] = 0.90, non-normed fit index [NNFI] = 0.94). When the findings related to the reliability of the scale were evaluated, it was determined that the reliability of the whole scale was 0.84, while the test-retest reliability coefficient was 0.84 for the agency thinking subdimension and 0.78 for the alternative ways subdimension. Within the scope of this study, the internal consistency coefficient for the whole scale was found to be 0.85.
Data collection and preliminary analysis
Within the scope of the research, the data were collected online through scales created in Google forms because of distance education. Before starting the analysis of the data obtained in the study, the suitability of the data to the univariate and multivariate normal distribution was analyzed by normality analysis. For this purpose, the suitability for univariate normal distribution was evaluated by examining the skewness and kurtosis values. It is reported that the skewness and kurtosis values between [-1.5, +1.5] are a criterion for the normality of the distribution (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013). However, after the multivariate normality of the data set was evaluated by examining the Mahalanobis, Tolerance, and Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) values, it was decided that the data set also had multivariate normality and the analysis of the data was performed. In the analysis of the data, Pearson correlation analysis, serial mediation analysis (Hayes, 2017), and Bootstrap confidence intervals method were used to determine the relationships between the variables. The analysis was performed using SPSS 24 and SPSS Process 3.5 macro.
There are traditional and contemporary methods in mediation analysis. For mediation analysis to be meaningful in traditional methods, the independent variable is supposed to have a significant effect on the dependent variable and the mediator variable, and the mediator variable on the dependent variable (Baron & Kenny, 1986). When the mediator variable is added to the model and the amount of the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable decreases, partial mediation exists, while full mediation occurs if the relationship is not significant (Baron & Kenny, 1986). However, contemporary approaches argue that there is no need for these requirements in mediation analysis and that the analysis will be valid if the mediator variable gives significant results in the model when added to the model (Hayes, 2017). In this study, we preferred mediation analysis with the contemporary approach using Hayes's model 6. In the mediation analysis performed with the Process macro, whether the mediation relationship is significant or not is determined if the highest and lowest values of the confidence intervals determined using the Bootstrap method do not contain 0 (Hayes, 2017). It is stated that the Bootstrap method gives more reliable results than the traditional method of Baron and Kenny (1986) and the Sobel test (Hayes, 2017; Zhao et al., 2010). In this study, mediation analysis was carried out in accordance with contemporary methods. In this context, the Bootstrap method with 5000 samples was used and the significance level of the serial mediation analysis was examined by considering the 95% confidence interval.
In order to determine whether the scales used in the research have valid and reliable results in the research sample, confirmatory factor analysis and Cronbach's alpha and McDonald's omega reliability analyses were performed and the results are given in Table 1.
When Table 1, which includes the validity and reliability results of the scales used in the research, is examined, it is seen that the scales have valid and reliable results in the research sample as well. Accordingly, when the validity results of the scales are evaluated, it is seen that the model fit indices are within acceptable value ranges. According to the reliability results of the scales, since it was determined that the reliability coefficients of Cronbach's alpha and McDonald's omega ranged between 0.83 and 0.86, it can be said that the scales produced sufficiently valid and reliable results in this research sample.
RESULTS
The correlations between career adaptability, career construction, dispositional hope, and career regret
We performed the Pearson correlation analysis to examine the correlations between career adaptability, career construction, dispositional hope, and career regret. Table 2 shows the correlations between the variables.
Table 2 indicates that there were moderate and negative significant relationships among career regret and dispositional hope (r = -0.40), career construction (r = -0.42), and career adaptability (r = -0.39). In addition, there was a moderately significant positive relationship between career adaptability and dispositional hope (r = 0.68), between career adaptability and career construction O = 0.56), and between career construction and dispositional hope (r = 0.51).
The mediator effect of career adaptability and career construction in the relationship between dispositional hope and career regret
The results of the mediator effect of career adaptability and career construction in the relationship between dispositional hope and career regret are given in Table 3 and Figure 1.
Table 3 and Figure 1 demonstrated that dispositional hope, the independent variable of the model, had a significant direct effect on career regret (B = -0.55, SE = 0.14), career adaptability (6 = 0.51, SE = 0.02), and career construction (B = 0.23, SE = 0.04). It was also determined that the direct effect of career adaptability on career construction (B = 0.48, SE = 0.06) and career regret (B = -0.46, SE = 0.19) is also significant. It was observed that the direct effect of career construction on career regret (B = -0.73, SE = 0.13) is significant.
Regression analysis based on Bootstrap method was conducted to determine whether career adaptability and career construction have a significant mediator role in the relationship between dispositional hope and career regret. According to the confidence intervals obtained through the bootstrap method, it was observed that career adaptability and career construction had a significant mediator effect on the relationship between dispositional hope and career regret (B = -0.18, SE = 0.04, 95% confidence interval [CI] [-0.27, -0.11]). Since the bootstrap lower and upper confidence intervals did not include 0, it was observed that the mediation effect was significant and the hypothesis of the research about mediation (H3) was confirmed.
Total, direct, and indirect effects
The results showing the total, direct, and indirect effects according to the mediation analysis results in the research are given in Table 4.
Table 4 demonstrated that the total effect of dispositional hope on career regret (B = 1.14, SE = 0.11, 95% CI [-1.34, -0.93]) and its direct effect (B = -0.55, SE = 0.14, 95% CI [-0.83, -0.27]) seem to be significant. The total indirect effect of dispositional hope on career regret (B = -0.58, SE = 0.11, 95% CI [-0.80, -0.37]) is also significant. The indirect effect of dispositional hope on career regret via career adaptability (B = -0.24, SE = 0.12, 95% CI [-0.47, -0.01]) is also significant. The indirect effect of dispositional hope on career regret via career construction (B = -0.17, SE = 0.04, 95% Cl [-0.26, -0.09]) is also significant. The indirect effect of dispositional hope on career regret via career adaptability and career construction (B = -0.18, SE = 0.04,95% CI [-0.27, -0.11]) is also significant. In addition, since the standardized total indirect effect value was determined as [beta] = -0.21, it is possible to say that career adaptability and career construction have a moderate mediating effect together.
DISCUSSION
The results of this study indicated that the serial mediation analysis of career adaptability and career construction was statistically significant in the relationship between dispositional hope and career regret. These results were discussed in the context of career construction theory and related literature as follows.
As a result of this research, the direct effect of dispositional hope was significant on career regret. This finding aligns with the previous research that examined the relationship between career decisionmaking difficulties, career regret, and hope. Zaleszczyk and Kot (2015) stated that the career decisionmaking difficulty levels of students with high hope levels were lower than students with medium and low hopes. In addition, it was explained that students with low hope experience indecision and lack of information about their selves and professions. Another study indicated that the hope-related scores of the students who stated that they studied in the university department they wanted were higher than the hope scores of the students who were studying in the department they did not want but had to choose for other reasons (Kucuk et al., 2019). Therefore, the high level of hopefulness of students can give an idea about the appropriateness of their career decisions. Peterson and Byron (2008) also examined the hope and job performance of occupational groups working in different job fields and levels. This research claimed that employees with higher levels of hope had higher work performance. Furthermore, it was also stated that employees that are more hopeful faced less problems and created active coping strategies for problems.
Hirschi (2014) also showed that dispositional hope was an important resource for proactive career development at different career stages. In addition, hope had a positive relationship with life and job satisfaction. In this context, it is thought that individuals who have made the right career decisions will experience less regret. The high level of hope in this process may be effective in successfully managing the process by helping them solve the problems they encounter. In this case, having high level of hope may have been effective in making students feel less regret by increasing their satisfaction with the decisions they have taken. As emphasized in the related studies, being hopeful interacts with students' career satisfaction and minimizes their decision-making difficulties. Similarly, in this study, dispositional hope had a significant direct effect on career regret. This result implied that hope is a significant variable that can help minimize career regret by affecting the motivation and positive emotions to solve the problems to be encountered in the career path.
The results also indicated that career adaptability has a mediating factor, reducing individuals' career regrets. This finding is congruent with previous studies, which indicate a reciprocal relationship among career adaptability, career decision-making difficulties, and career regret (Leung et al., 2021). Career construction theory claims that career adaptation resources make a significant contribution to the success of individuals in their transition from high school to university and from university to job life (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012) because individuals with adaptation skills are self-confident in solving their problems, are curious to explore their environment, and have an interest and determination about their occupational future (Korkut-Owen & Niles, 2011). This situation supported various studies, indicating that career adaptability is positively associated with job experiences, burnout, educational department satisfaction, job stress, and career and job satisfaction (Chan & Mai, 2015; Creed & Patton, 2003; Doganulku & Kirdok, 2021; Fiori, et al., 2015; Hasret, 2019; Ueichi et al., 2012; Wessel, et al., 2008). Similarly, it has been stated that the career adaptability training given to graduate students provides a qualitatively higher quality of employment and increases their chances of finding a job (Koen et al., 2012). In addition, Zeng et al. (2022) indicated that career adaptability has a significant mediator between hope and life satisfaction. Korkmaz (2023) also found that career adaptability plays a significant mediator role between hope and career goal feedback. All these studies support the effect of hope on career regret and the mediating role of career adaptability.
Another result of this study indicates that career adaptability and career construction behaviors serve as a mediating factor in reducing individuals' career regrets. The finding that there is a significant relationship between the concept of career construction and career adaptability is similar to the results of various studies conducted in both Turkey and other countries (Babarovic & Sverko, 2016; Jia et al., 2022; Merino-Tejedor et al., 2016; Yildiz-Akyol & Oztemel, 2022). Babarovic and Sverko (2016) stated that students' career construction and career adaptability skills were highly positively correlated, while these skills were negatively related to career decision-making difficulties. Difficulties in making career decisions were considered as the indicators of the inadequacy of career development tasks. Yildiz-Akyol and Oztemel (2022) found that academic satisfaction is affected by success, adaptability, and career construction. To test a similar structure, Merino-Tejedor et al. (2016) examined the effects of self-regulation, career adaptability, and career construction on academic engagement and burnout. Accordingly, the findings showed that the mediating role of career adaptability was significant in the relationship among self-regulation, career construction, and academic engagement. In another study conducted by Oztemel and Yildiz-Akyol (2020), the mediating effect of career adaptability and career construction behaviors on the relationship between self-esteem and happiness was examined within the framework of career construction theory. As a result of the research, it was seen that career adaptability predicted career construction behaviors, and these two variables had a mediating effect on the relationship between self-esteem and happiness. In conclusion, hope plays an important role in the career regret experienced by university students, alongside career adaptability and career construction.
Limitation of the study and future research
The results of the present study are supposed to be evaluated in the light of limitations. First, the convenience sampling method has a limitation that reduces the representativeness of the sample and the generalization of the results. Therefore, researchers can use systematic and stratified sampling methods in future research. Second, the number of males is lower than that of females, which may create a bias in terms of generalizing results. In future studies, attention can be paid to balancing the number of men and women in the sample. Third, cross-sectional designs have limitations that lack cause-effect and longitudinal effects. The change in career regret between the first and last years of university can be examined with longitudinal studies. Fourth, online data collection is another limitation that limits sampling and leads to a low response rate and lack of privacy. Researchers can conduct data collection face-to-face in future research.
The results of the study revealed that career construction and hope were significant predictors of the relationship between career regret and career adaptability. For this reason, fifth, in career counseling activities, it is possible to include the components of hope that can help students overcome difficulties by enabling them to see alternatives in the process. Psychoeducational studies can also be organized for students during career construction stages in order to help them be familiar with career construction stages. In these psychoeducation programs, both the career construction stages of Crystallizing, Exploring, Deciding, and Preparing can be added. In addition, career adaptation skills such as Concern, Control, Curiosity, and Confidence should also be included in these psychoeducation programs.
Lastly, as this study was conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic period, it is likely that individuals' responses to COVID-19 affected the level of their dispositional hope or career decisions, and research variables were affected by COVID-19. Although COVID-19 is not considered as a main variable affecting the variables of the present study, it is necessary to conduct further studies with similar variables to address the existence of such an effect.
Implications for practice
As a result of this research, in a sample of Turkish university students, it was seen that career construction and dispositional hope had a significant serial mediating role in the indirect effect of career adaptability on career regret. In line with the findings obtained as a result of the research, the possible recommendations are as follows.
Within the scope of this study, career counseling activities that allow students to discover their career adaptability skills can be emphasized in the career counseling process in order to minimize the possible regret of the students regarding their career choices. Career centers and psychological counseling and guidance centers of universities can provide individual and group counseling services to reduce career regret. The content of these counseling services can include career construction stages, career adaptation, and hope. In addition, career planning-based elective courses based on university can be integrated to the programs.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
FUNDING INFORMATION
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
ORCID
Seyma Bilgiz-Ozturk [ID] https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6506-7236
Aynur Karabacak-Celik [ID] https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2225-1789
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Received: 22 February 2022 | Revised: 17 October 2023 | Accepted: 23 October 2023
DOI: 10.1002/cdq.12337
Seyma Bilgiz-Ozturk [ID] | Aynur Karabacak-Celik [ID]
Department of Psychological Counseling and Guidance, Ataturk University, Erzurum, Turkey
Correspondence
Aynur Karabacak-Celik, Department of Psychological Counseling and Guidance, Kazim Karabekir Faculty of Education, Ataturk University, PO Box 25100, Yakutiye, Erzurum, Turkey.
Email: [email protected]
Caption: FIGURE 1 Mediation analysis.
TABLE 1 Validity and reliability results of the scales used in the study in the research sample. Scales [chi square] df [chi square]/df SRMR Career Choice Regret 7.47 3 2.49 0.02 Dispositional Hope 77.70 16 4.86 0.04 Career Adapt-Ability 206.09 45 4.58 0.05 Career Construction 581.62 132 4.40 0.05 Scales RMSEA CFI TLI [alpha] [OMEGA] Career Choice Regret 0.05 0.99 0.99 0.84 0.85 Dispositional Hope 0.08 0.95 0.92 0.83 0.83 Career Adapt-Ability 0.08 0.93 0.90 0.86 0.86 Career Construction 0.07 0.85 0.82 0.85 0.85 Abbreviations: CFI, comparative fit index; RMSEA, root mean square error of approximation; SRMR, standardized root mean square residual; TLI, Tucker-Lewis index.
TABLE 2 The correlations among career regret, dispositional
hope, career construction, and career adaptability
(N = 550).
1 2 3 4
1. Career regret 1
2. Dispositional hope -0.398 ** 1
3. Career Construction -0.424 ** 0.509 ** 1
4. Career adaptability -0.38 6** 0.679 ** 0.557 ** 1
skills
[bar.X] 22.55 50.23 54.82 52.29
SD 21.91 7.84 7.30 5.96
Skewness 0.873 -0.469 -0.057 -0.493
Kurtosis 0.080 -0.231 -0.382 -0.650
** p < 0.001.
TABLE 3 The mediation analysis results (N = 550).
Result variables
Career adaptability
Prediction variables B SE
Dispositional hope 0.52 * 0.02
Career adaptability -- --
skills
Career construction -- --
Constant [i.sub.M1] = 26.36
[R.sup.2] = 0.46 *
F(l, 548) = 469.90 *
Result variables
Career construction
Prediction variables B SE
Dispositional hope 0.23 * 0.04
Career adaptability 0.48 0.06
skills
Career construction -- --
Constant [i.sub.M2] = 18.37
[R.sup.2] = 0.34 *
F(2, 547) = 141.74 *
Result variables
Career regret
Prediction variables B SE
Dispositional hope -0.55 * 0.14
Career adaptability -0.46 ** 0.19
skills
Career construction -0.73 * 0.13
Constant [i.sub.Y]= 114.06
[R.sup.2] = 0.24 *
F(3,546) = 57.65 *
* p < 0.001; ** p < 0.05, [i.sub.M1] = unstandardized coefficient
for first mediator variable, [i.sub.M2] = unstandardized
coefficient for second mediator variable, iY = unstandardized
coefficient for dependent variable.
TABLE 4 Total, direct, and indirect effects.
95% BCI
Total effect B SE LL UL
DH[right arrow]CR -1.135 0.106 -1.344 -0.926
Direct effect
DH[right arrow]CR -0.553 0.142 -0.832 -0.273
Indirect effect
Total indirect effect -0.582 0.108 -0.803 -0.374
DH[right arrow]CA[right arrow]CR -0.235 0.116 -0.467 -0.008
DH[right arrow]CC [right arrow]CR -0.165 0.043 -0.257 -0.088
DH[right arrow]CA[right arrow]CC -0.181 0.041 -0.269 -0.106
[right arrow]CR
95% BCI
Total effect [beta]
DH[right arrow]CR 0.21
Direct effect
DH[right arrow]CR
Indirect effect
Total indirect effect
DH[right arrow]CA[right arrow]CR
DH[right arrow]CC [right arrow]CR
DH[right arrow]CA[right arrow]CC
[right arrow]CR
Abbreviations: BCI, Bootstrap confidence interval; CA,
Career adaptability; CC, Career construction; CR,
Career regret; DH, Dispositional hope; LL,
Bootstrap lower level; UL, Bootstrap upper level.
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6506-7236
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2225-1789
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| Author: | Bilgiz-Ozturk, Seyma; Karabacak-Celik, Aynur |
|---|---|
| Publication: | Career Development Quarterly |
| Article Type: | Report |
| Date: | Dec 1, 2023 |
| Words: | 10047 |
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